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The process of machine transportation of language is complex. To translate a document from English into Japanese, for example, the computer first analyzes an English sentence, determining its grammatical structure and identifying the subject, verb, objects, and modifiers. Next, the words are translated by an English-Japanese dictionary. After that, another part of the computer program analyzes the resulting awkard jumble of words and meanings and produces an intellligible sentence based on the rules of Japanese syntax and the machine's understanding of what the original English meant. Finally, a human bilingual editor polishes the computer-produced translation.
Kind of Logical Order: Logical Division of Ideas
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French and U.S. business managers have decidely different management styles. French meetings, for example, are long and rambling and rarely end on time. Furthermore, meetings often and without closure. Managers in the United States, on the other hand, make an effort to start and stop meeting on time, and North American business meetings typically end with decision and action plans. Another difference involves documentation. North Americans adore documetation; they have a procedure manual for everything. The French, in contrast, thinks this is childish. French managers do not share information with subordinates and make decision with little participation by employees beneath them. In U.S. companies, however, top managers share information and frequently solicit input from subordinates ("How French Managers").
Kind of Logical Orders: Comparison/Contrast
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It took more than 2.500 years to develop the calendar used in most Western countries today. In about 700 B.C.E., te ancient Romans used a calendar that had 304 days divided into 4 months; March was the beginning of each year. There were more than 60 days missing from the calendar, so very soon the calendar did not match the seasons at all. Spring arrived when the calendar said that it was still winter. A few decades later, the Romans added the monthsof January and February to the end of the year. This calendar lasted about 600 years. His calendar had 365 days, with one day added every fourth year. He also moved the beginning of the year to January 1, and he renamed a month for himself: Julius (July). In Caesar's calendar, February had 29 days. The very next emperor, Augustus, not only renamed a month for himself (August), but he also took one day from one day from February and added to it to August so that 'his' month would be just as long as Caesar's. This calendar worked better than the previous ones, but it still was not perfect. By 1580, the first calendrical day of spring was 10 days too early, so in 1582, Pope Gregory XII, the leader of the Roman Catholic religion, made a small change to make the calendar more accurate. In the Gregorian calendar, the year is still 26.3 seconds different from the solar year, but it will be a long time before this causes the problem.
Kind of Logical order: Chronological Order
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The many different calendars used throughout the world are all based on the phases of the moon, on the revolution of Earth around the Sun, or on a combination of the two. The first kind of calendar is the lunar calendar, based on the phases of the moon. A month is calculated as the time between two full moons, 29.5 days, and a year has 354 days. The Islamic calendar used in Muslim countries is a lunar calendar. It has 12 months and a cycle of 30 years in which the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th years have 355 days, and the others 354 days. A second kind of calendar is the solar calendar, which is based on the revolution of Earth around the Sun. The ancient Egyptians used a solar calendar divided into 12 months of 30 days each, which left 5 encounted days at the end of each year. A very accurate calendar developed by the Mayan Indians in North America was also a solar calendar. It had 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds long, however, a solar calendar is not totally accurate, so many cultures developed a third kind of calendar, the lunisolar calendar. In a lunisolar calendar, extra days are added every so often to reconcile the lunar months with the solar year. The Chinese, Hebrew, and Gregorian calendars used today are lunisolar calendars.
Kind of Logical Order: Comparison/Contrast
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